The Maasai

The Maasai people are a Nilotic African ethnic group living in East African between Kenya and Northern Tanzania (near the Indian Ocean). East Africa lies just under the equator. Kenya is among low plains and central highlands making this region one of the most successful agricultural regions in Africa. The climate in Kenya is usually tropical along the coast, but the climate in the northern east part of Kenya is arid (lacking water availability, agriculture growth, animal life, and vegetation)Kenya receive a great number of sunlight throughout the year. It is usually cool at night and early mornings. Heavy rainfall usually occurs during March through June. Little rainfall usually occurs during the months of October, November, and December. Although this region receives rainfall, the temperatures are high, and there are high levels of humidity. Kenya has a considerable portion of this region is to wildlife and sharing this land with "The Big Five" animals:lions, leopards, buffalo. rhinoceros, and elephants. 

                                                                                                                                  

               

Physical and Cultural Adaptations among the Maasai

Masai woman with physical characteristic of deep dark skin color and a shaved head.

Physical adaptations of the Maasai tribe are their deep dark skin tone complexion. This population are under intensive sunlight. Their environment is a desert. In order for this tribe to adapt this kind of climate, the skin must produce more melanin to fight against ultraviolet rays that the sun provides. Shaved heads are common among the Maasai tribe, and it is common in women as well. Besides ritual purposes for shaving heads, it reduces body temperature,and the thick coiled, course hair protects the scalp against sunlight. Having longer hair would mean more body warmth. Research published in the "New England Journal of Medicine" found that the Maasai demonstrate some unique biological characteristics. Despite their high-fat diet, they have consistent low levels of cholesterol and lipoprotein with no indication of atherosclerosis. The study suggested that the Maasai possess a cholesterol-absorption control that compensates for dietary cholesterol. An absence of cholesterol gallstones was also noted. The study concluded that these positive realizations may reflect a long-term biological adaptation of the tribe. Another physical adaptation was related to blood pressure. Analyses performed on subjects from tribal and non-tribal Maasai found differences in physical characteristics, pulse rate and systolic blood pressure, as published in "Annals of Human Biology." The non tribal sample had significantly higher blood pressure than the tribal members. The tentative conclusion was that blood pressure is affected by change in environment, and the effect on cholesterol levels may be longer-term.
  Cultural adaptations among the Maasai tribe are their distinctive clothing,diet, currency,and how their homes are built. The Maasai people are clothed throughout the whole year. They replaced animal skin, calf hide, and sheep skin with commercial cotton cloth.  Their diet consists of meat, milk (majority of it), grains, beans, and the blood from the cattle (rarely). Their diet lacks supply of iron, niacin, vitamin A, vitamin c, thiamine, and energy.the Maasai Society are cattle centered communal. Cattle to the Maasai are what 401Ks and saving accounts to the Americans.
Because of the available resources, their houses are constructed of mud, sticks, cow dung, human urine, and ash. The cow dung ensures no moisture or water leakage of their houses also known as Inkajijik. The villages are enclosed in a circular fence by a throned native tree to keep their cattle, cows, and goats safe from wild animals at night.

Maasai bomas are hand made huts constructed with cow dung and mud. The word boma however is also used when referring to the circular 'fencing' (made from thorny Acacia trees) that encircle the group of huts.

     
Language
Although the Maasai people thrive and are stressed to learn and speak English, their native language is Maa. It is a language under considerable stress as more and more Maasai learn and adopt English and Swahili in school, in their homes and in the workplace. Their culture and traditions are being rapidly eroded, since Maasai children never learn to read or write in their mother tongue in school, and thus have virtually no conception of the basics of its grammar. The Maa language has 30 constructive sounds (consonants), and nine vowels. Approximately 900,000 Eastern Africa speak this language (predominantly in Southern Kenya and Tanzania).

The Maasai people shown here are speaking English.  

Gender Roles Among the Tribe
The Maasai culture is a male dominant society, and the Maasai must follow certain customs in order to engage in their culture. Circumcision is practiced among both men and women (which influences their place in the culture). Age and gender among the Maasai are factors in which how the Maasai socially interact. I will first explain the woman's role in the culture.

The Woman's Role
There are two categories for girls in this tribe: circumcised and uncircumcised girls. The Intoyie are girls who are uncircumcised, and if the woman is not circumcised, she cannot marry. She would only have sexual intercourse with the Illmuran (which are young warrior of the tribe),she would only be seen as a sexual object than sought after for love. If a Maasai woman is circumcised, she would then be eligible for marriage and ready for immediate starting a family (only for the elder warriors). The Maasai mothers are the ones who teach the daughters the Illmuran ideals, and they cannot express their TRUE feeling, but the Maasai women were allowed to scorn and express their feelings about men in songs. The women have less rights than men. The Maasai women are not allowed to be in the house when the elders are eating. The women re the ones who are in charge of raising the children and household chores. 

The Maasai women are in charge of household duties such as collecting water, cooking, and taking care of the children.

The Man's Role
The Ilayiok are boys who have not gone through circumcision. They have a harder upbringing than boys who are circumcised. They do not have access to cattle but to small stock and calves. They are constantly ridiculed and humiliated by the village and endure hunger and physical hardships. They have to go to ongoing mental and physical examinations, so circumcision is the way to go if a boy wants to strive in this culture. Once the boy has gone through circumcision, the boy is ready for manhood, and he is then an Illmuran which is a young warrior. As a Illmuran, you are given more status among the tribe. If men show a sign of pain, they are beaten and bring shame to the family.

From childhood, Maasai men are socially taught to strive to be brave and tough to be Illmuran warriors when they are older.

Economy
"Meishoo iyiook enkai inkishu o-nkera"- (May Creator give us cattle and children)

Livestock such as cattle, goats and sheep are the primary source of income for the Maasai. Livestock serves as a social utility and plays an important role in the Maasai economy. Livestock are traded for other livestock, cash or livestock products such as milk and siege. Individual, families, and clans established close ties through giving or exchange of cattle. Cattle and children are the most important aspect of the Maasai people.The Maasai economy is increasingly dependent on the market economy. Livestock products are sold to other groups in Kenya for the purchase of beads, clothing and grains. Cows and goats are also sold for uniform and school fees for children. It is now common to see young Maasai men and women in major towns and cities of Kenya selling, not just goats and cows, but also beads, cell phones, chacoal, grain among other items. The entrepreneurial spirit is something new in our society. 

The Maasai are cattle centered.

  
Marriage Patterns and Patterns of Descent
For both men and women, marriage can only take place once they have been circumcised. And in order for the man to marry a woman, he needs to own four cattle, three calves, one bull calf, three goats, copper wire, and honey to produce beer. The man selects a "best man", and they are both welcomed to the bride-to be's home (where they are welcomed) and beer is then given. A necklace is given to the bride as a symbol that she is married (which other women cannot wear that kind of necklace that the married woman wears). There is dancing throughout the whole ceremony, and a ram is sacrificed for the unity of the two. 
Any inheritances or descent is done through the male line. Women are not the ones who own the livestock, and when men get married there are given cattle to support the his new family.

Social and Political Structure
The Maasai live in clans which consists of six to twelves bomas in their clan, and the nuclear family of the husband and wife, children from previous relationships are not to live among the clans. Although the nuclear family of the husband is still entitled to the benefits of the livestock, because it was once their cattle. Each Maasai who had livestock and was independent (owns a boma and livestock) belonged to a locality, and there each Maasai is primarily identified to oloshon (the section where he lives). And within that section, men had their ranches, and they are to sustain their section with their livestock and farming. The Maasai are patrilineal they are to remain within the father's clan throughout his whole life. In each clan, they have the same basic branding to be identified. The more the Maasai has in cattle the more powerful he is in decision making among the clan.

Religion and Artistic Expression
The Maasai believe in a god named Ngai, and it neither male or female. It is said it has different aspects, like when they pray , it is said "Naamoni aiyai" which refers to "She to whom I pray". The religious beliefs of Maasai were that the God Ngai was seperate by land and sky, and Ngai gave cattle to the Maasai. Cattle which also plays an important role in their religion as well. The Maasai people have a lot of ceremonies.There are ceremonies for age-sets when a boy becomes a man and ceremonies for women to become fertile for their new family. A popular art form among the Maasai is display dancing. The women , girls, and warriors are decorated on their whole body and on their clothing there are colorful beads and ornaments.

Cattle are very important even in their religious beliefs cattle bring luck and fortune to the family. 

Bibliography
 "New England Journal of Medicine:" Some Unique Biologic Characteristics of the Masai of East Africa; Kurt Biss, M.D. et al; 1971

"Annals of Human Biology:" Biological Variations Associated with Change in Lifestyle Among the Pastoral and Nomadic Tribes of East Africa; José Day; 1979

The Massai Language <http://www.omniglot.com/writing/maasai.html>

http://maasaiinfo.wikispaces.com/Marriage

http://www.africafiles.org/atissueezine.asp?issue=issue4

ww.everyculture.com/Africa-Middle-East/Maasai-Religion-and-Expressive-Culture.html

The Art in Culture

1. a. The picture below shows a bison (which I read, it was the most powerful animal during the paleolithic times) and a man who is lying on the floor. To me, it seems as though the man lost the fight against the bison, and he is dead. Perhaps, the people were trying to show their daily struggles and adversities through paintings.

b. The Lascaux caves were covered with bison, ox, horses, cattle,deer, bears, and wolves paintings.. Depicted animals showed of deer and cattle which were hunted and eaten, and animals such as bears and wolves were feared of. During the Paleolithic times, survival depended on meat through hunting, and the fur for warmth. I believe the paintings were mainly about animals, because animals were very important for the people's lives.

c. The paintings can also give us an insight on their diet, tools they acquired, and their habitat. The paintings show cattle and other livestock which can indicate what kind of animals were being hunted at that time. In the first image I provided, it shows a man using a broken spear against that bison. So perhaps, their tools were spears and sharp objects, and the most obvious is that the Paleolithic people were cavedwellers, and the caves were their habitats.

d. The early humans had the difficulties of darkness of the caves, because back then, they did not have the bright lights, but they did have gas lamps as their source of light, so they did manage to get some sort of light, but it was probably so dim.

e.One of the possible functions of this art is it could have served as entertainment. I did further reading on the caves of Luscaux, and one archaeologist stated that some paintings were some what positions like that of a comic book, so it could have been of form of storytelling. Another function of this art could have been like sign of caution. Paintings that included bears and wolves could have informed other people that these animals mean harm and are predators. And, lastly, it could have been just a form of education. Maybe teaching children how to draw was a way for this culture to develop creativity.

2. The function we see in the art in the Luscaux caves and in today's art is that art can be one's expression, and it can be seen as a form of entertainment.

My favorite form of art is Ballet. 

3. a. Ballet dancing has a few functions. Ballet can aide in improving posture and balance. In some cases, it helps maintain weight. By practicing ballet, an individual can improve their stretching techniques, and it can can strengthen the abdominal muscles. In ballet, they are interpreting music through elegant like movements.

b. There is a whole culture surrounding this form of art. It is performed in The United States, France, Italy, and Russia. Ballet even has its own set of vocabulary (French) of movements. The girls and women who practice ballet always wear a tutu, leotard, legging  tights, and a bun,etc.

c. Ballet has its detrimental affects.Ballet dancing is particularly hard on the female.Women must be very thin, and they have to appear girlish in figure, which provokes an epidemic of anorexia and bulimia among the female dancers. Girls who pursue ballet advance to pointe and use pointe showes. The way the pointe shoes are structured and repitition of certain dance moves can cause foot problems such as blisters,cuts, and bunions.

Politics and Violence Among the Yanomamo Tribe

1. In the United States, we are governed by court systems and law enforcement to justify murders. According to the article, The  Yanomamo culture  have no written language, precise number system, formal laws, or institutionalized adjudicators such as chiefs or judge, so how the Yanomamo tribe go on about justice and killing is quite more different as well. Although there are rules among this tribe, the Yanomamo men violate these rules REGULARLY, and the conflict usually is revolving about women.In Western cultures, aggressive behavior is seen negatively. Whereas in the Yanomamo tribe, the children are encouraged to "act" aggressive, and the boys are rewarded for showing aggressive tendencies. The rules and laws about killing in the United States it is illegal, and if someone in the western culture were to kill out of vengeance or revenge, it would not justify the murder.

2. Revenge killings usually are caused over conflict over women. If there is suspicious or even slight suspicious, infidelity, or jealousy and sometimes revenge is also sought for the deaths of individuals who are alleged to have died as a consequence of harmful magic practiced by shamans in enemy villages, it would lead to physical fights, duels, chest pounding (where they take turns pounding each others' chest), killings with bow and arrows, which in turn rises a raid. A raid usually takes place at dawn and consists of ten to twenty men, and the village where they intent to raid can be a four to five days' march. The revenge group is then divided within the village with the support of relatives, and everyone who takes part in the raid is a target. The goal is to kill the person who killed their relative, and there are times where kill anyone who the raid encounters.

Unokais or Nonunokais?

"Becoming an unokai is simply one of a number of male characteristics valued by the Yanomamo and an integral component in a more general complex of goals for which ambitious men strive. All the characteristics just mentioned make some males more attractive as mates in arranged marriages and dispose some of them to take the risks involved in appropriating additional females by force."

3. Once as an Unikais, men who demonstrate their willingness to act violently or to take part of revenge for the deaths of close relatives have higher marital and reproductive success than nonunokais which in turns the Unokais men gain status within the village. Men who "back down" in a raid due to a bad dream or feeling, or the men sometimes state being sick or stepping on a thorn out of fear are made fun of or labeled as cowards, and the wives are targeted for sexual attention. By having more wives, they have many children and increase in family members, and if someone in the village is killed, the probability is very high that he or she will have many kin. In my opinion, why some men in the Yanomamo culture choose to be Unakais than a nonunakais is that it is more rewarding, and men gain status and women. In the article, under Table 3,the table shows that Unakais men, 81% of the 137 Unokais men were married and had multiple wives, and out of the Nonunokais men, 51% of the 243 men were married and had less wives.

 4.Relationship between Killings and the aspects of the Yanomamo culture 

a. Political Structure  
They do not have formal leadership where that leader enforces laws, but they do have a village head. The Yanomamo culture rely on kinship in terms of structure where they form alliances and their village, for the Yanomamo tribe are consistently in warfare. The more relatives that are supporting in the raid, the stronger the group is as a whole.
b. Social Status/Social Organization
Although not all men participate in raid or become Unokais, men who are Unokais gain more social status by gaining respect and more wives.  Men who consistently back down from raids are considered cowards, and their wives being sexual targets.If the Yanomamo men are ambitious about regularly revenge raids, they gain dignity and independence.
c. Kinship
There is a strong emphasis on the paternal line.All Yanomamo villages have several  patrimonial descent groups. Males and females of all ages who are related to each other through the male line of descent. Members of these groups must find their spouses in some other patrimonial descent group, preferably within the village. Kinship is very important for the Yanomamo tribe. Another motive for a raid is the death of a family member. A common statement among the Yanomamo tribe is ""If my sick mother dies, I will kill some people."
d. Marriage and Reproduction
The Yanomamo tribe practice polygamous, so it is not unusual to have many wives and many children by increasing the family members in numbers which can help built a stronger line of kinship for raiding and is advantageous among the village. Reproducing among the Unokais is much higher. It is also common for men to take other wives from other men who are labeled as weaker.

5.  Why do we need laws against something that no one should want to do?
We need laws to enforce safety, because we are all affected by a loss of a loved one, but not everyone reacts to it the same. There are some individuals who feel resent, or the need to retaliate, or feel very anger, and they would act out based on their emotions. With laws, as a society, our court systems can resolve a murder, and  it can help society with chaos. The Yanomamo culture is a perfect example on a society showing how taking murder and revenge to someone's own matter results to.

A dispute between two villagers by club fighting.